Teaching and Learning Efficiently
Felipe H Razo Ph. D.
Animath Inc. San Diego, CA
feliperazo@gmail.com

Introduction

Learning and teaching, like other productive activities, is more effective (getting desired effects) and efficient (at lowest cost, safer, faster) when using better tools and under better environments. Better tools and learning environments, particularly in schools, our “learning factories,” means good curricula, materials, supplies, desks, teachers, classrooms, libraries, laboratories, buildings, play, lunch areas, facilities and administration. These are what it takes to support meaningful, safe, enjoyable living, teaching and learning. The purpose of this document is to promote better environments for learning by focusing, as strongly as possible on the diverse natural instincts and productive motivation of learners, particularly children. To do this, many opportunities are presented as tools, supports and environments that could help prepare children for their future. This will include many proven successful traditional, old and new, real or simulated teaching materials, technologies, strategies, real, realistic situations and experiences.

Although there is naturally a higher impact of formative experiences during the pre-school, elementary and high school levels, the benefits from these extend through life. Given the complexity of the human condition, real-life and educational contexts, this book does not suggest any specific promising "magic pill" setting, technology, facility, procedure or organization, but instead, the things, simple and complex that could bring positive outcomes.

Since the objectives in our society are for students and children to learn and master curricular subjects in the most effective, efficient and enduring ways possible, special attention is given to proper identification of objectives, selection and use of tools, new and old, to best support the academic subjects and topics, as currently stated by today’s institutions. The use of scientific procedures and technologies for teaching will therefore be advocated for the identification and definition of critical needs, and the exploration of best available, affordable, safe, efficient ways and means, including the newest, most powerful, safe computer-based multimedia tools and environments for their merit.

In regards to electronic technology supports to education, the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE; http://www.iste.org/) in their Educational Technology Standards, have suggested various ways in which new computer, communications and interfacing technologies can help students, teachers, coaches and administrators. Today, ISTE standards, as well as recommendations from the TPACK organization (TPACK, Technological, Pedagogical, Area Content Knowledge; http://tpack.org/) can provide helpful considerations and strategies to students, teachers and administrators. Please use the links and take a few moments to review the ISTE standards and TPACK recommendations.

Another important consideration regards to often high expectations for new technologies to transform education, "at the click of a button": Although that possibility would be desirable, there must be reasons why in spite of the billions spent and the years of attempts to improve education through "miracle" technologies of different kinds, things do not seem to have changed much. Televisions, laser discs, large and small computers, "information superhighways," intelligent portable” devices, "smart boards" and "electronic pads" have, for the most part, come and gone, and the great success of technologies realized in other areas of human activity continue to fail to transform significantly, specifically the academic performance of most students. And with that, the outcomes of various organizational and institutional education strategies have come and gone through the years without claim to their often high-tooted promises and expectations for impact. Why? Could it be because classrooms are more complicated places than what we tend to assume? Also, could there be a need to identify better: more specifically and clearly, what makes us want to learn which ideas or skills, why ("what is in it" for me,) when and how?

Regarding the format and availability of this writing, it is the intention of making it openly available and accessible as an evolving, Internet-based document, aimed primarily to benefit any and all readers, teachers, parents and anybody concerned about the future and education. Much of the material and resources presented hopefully helps the reader understand why technologies that are successful in other environments, and considered reasonably promising for educational purposes, might not be as successful in K-12 classrooms or under independent learning environments.

The approach here will be basic: analyze the specific, real needs, nature and situation of learners, educators and facilities, and then explore the possible approaches and physical products that can be helpful. This approach implies that it is important to properly define the curricular and pedagogical present and future targets for institutions and individuals, and then consider what tools, including old and new materials and methods, low and high technologies that could be helpful, safe, effective, efficient and cost-justifiable.

Among the options, it will be important to include any and all all practical available material and tools of use and information technology. This would include traditional objects and methods (e.g. hands-on mock-ups, worksheets, art projects, exploration activities, field trips, surveys, etc.) as well as standard and specialized equipment and setups, such as touch-screens, "smart boards", audio-video processors, on-line access over the Internet, disability assisting materials and activities (i.e. Assistive Technologies, Kurzweil stations, etc.) Among the “new” tools would be all standard computers and “productivity” software (e.g. Word processing, spreadsheets, graphics, sound and animation authoring, etc.), as well as specialized products with specific functional and/or curricular purpose, such as AutoCad, Geometer Sketchpad, Geo-mapping, GPS, Virtual-interactive games, automated tools and robotics simulations, laboratory and classroom data sensing, logging and audiovisual presentation devices, etc.

Throughout the book, the planning and presentation of teaching and learning activities will follow the most common, simplified standard lesson plan formats, designed to include“infusions” of diverse technologies. Infusions that illustrate real life objects and actions within the topic and content subject, with clarity, and in as many different forms of "representation" and as helpful and possible.

Helpful objects and actions can be used to communicate and promote ideas and knowledge that can be shared from one area to another. The materials in the infusions can help with their effects over the human cognitive system (System -IPO- Model of Learning, MMR-MSR-SSE, F. Razo, 2010), that is: better communications through stronger sensory stimulation, symbolization and opportunities for efficient understanding, active participation and assimilation, through motion and repetition.

Teaching and learning can also be improved through constant and better diagnostics (assessment) and reflection for each and all environments and processes involved. In particular, there will be a need to keep analyzing and improving the facilitation and inclusion required by students and populations with special needs.

Finally, the book is infused with live links to support access to on-line research, analysis, discussion and participation in the topics presented. A proper understanding will also be required of the primary objectives of parents, teachers, administrators and society, all concerned with the readiness of our children for a future filled with increasingly complex, interconnected, and competitive challenges and opportunities.

Although there is a myriad of sources of research information in most any topic these days, popular on-line search tools such as Google, Yahoo, Bing, etc. are suggested as an initial step. Within the text descriptions ahead, key terms will be flagged with the symbol ?, which is used to activate a corresponding hyper-link to a Google web search engine (www.google.com) page to request additional information. The reader can then select one or more of the links suggested in the search results page. A new window-page will then be opened and closed freely at the end of its consultation.

Good luck and enjoy this exploration.

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Chapter 1 The biological basis for learning and the use of technologies.

Objective: In this chapter, students will investigate and review the basic concepts of learning, education and educational technology.

To begin, a basic definition of terms will be introduced regarding learning and the basic human physical biology that supports it, starting with the collection of information from the environment through our five senses, to the processing, interpretation, definition of patterns, decision-making processing by nerve tissue and brain, leading to the assimilation and diverse knowledge, effects and responses allowed by the muscular and skeletal means in the human body.

What is learning?
For our purposes, the first term to be explored is learning ? . The Microsoft Encarta Dictionary® states that learning is “The acquisition of knowledge or skills”. The word Knowledge is defined (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/learning) as “general awareness or possession of information, facts, ideas, truths, or principles”,and skills as “the ability to do something well”. Why and how do people acquire knowledge and/or skills? For the general purposes of this text, we will assume that knowledge and skills are needed because they prepare people to live better by dealing more effectively and efficiently with the environment, using our bodies sensorial, nerve and motor systems and the controls by our brain. Knowledge and skills empower us to survive and manage our environment better, safer, faster, and more economically.

Human learning: The senses collecting information for the brain
How does learning happen?
Figure 1.1 below, presents an overview of the process of learning, framed conceptually in a general systems model (INPUT, PROCESSING/STORAGE, OUTPUT). The diagram in figure 1.1 (to be labeled MMR-MSR) describes how the patterns of the world (1- A Meaningful Real World) are perceived by the five natural senses of vision, hearing, smell, taste, in various representation forms (2 - in Multiple Representation forms) are perceived in simultaneous collection of information by the senses (3 - Multiple Senses: INPUT; VIEWING/READING, LISTENING, FEELING) to support the productive interpretation and development (4 - Assimilation through Repetition - VISUAL, AUDIBLE and TACTILE ?) to deal with the simple and complex patterns of the world. The brain will therefore organize, arrange, rearrange and store information (mostly in forms of constructed PATTERNS, which include those in a LANGUAGE), and will eventually be retrieved and used to drive back corresponding responses (OUTPUT; WRITING, SPEAKING, PHYSICAL FORCE and MOVEMENT) meant to TRANSFORM the real world. The contribution of the smell and taste senses is de emphasized in this overview diagram, to reflect thediminished role these senses currently have in the processes of general academic learning.

Fig. 1.1 A Systems Model (INPUT-PROCESSING-OUTPUT) of the complex process of learning

In Figure 1.2, there are three images of the visual sense in humans – The first one presents a cross section of the human eye, starting when light captured from the environment reaches and passes through the pupil. cornea, and lens, to finally strike the light-sensitive retina in the back of each of the eye balls. The expanded view of the retina shown next displays the detail of its nerve cell arrays. These are called rods and cones. Rods and cones absorb different frequency-color radiation energy from the light received and convert that light energy into electrical signals ? , using a photosensitive protein called Opsin. These signals are then transmitted to the brain as visual information through the optical nerves. Through this process, our eyes can be compared to a present-day color video camera, capturing information from the environment and communicating it electronically to a "video processing computer" in the brain.

The closer view of the retina's rods and cones tissue in Figure 1.2 makes more visible the distinction among them: The rods are basically fast, color-blind shape detectors of light intensity, intended to support fast object-spatial and position sensing only. The cones are slower, but each able to selectively detect one of three different color frequencies in the received light: red, green, or blue. As the distinct intensity of signals from each of the types of cones is transmitted and processed in the brain, a unique color is determined as the combination (mix) of these (primary) colors.

The dual path structure of the optical nerves of both eyes, bringing visual information from the retina to the visual cortex zones in each eye to the back of the brain, is shown in the last image in Figure 1.2. The optical nerves bringing signals from the eyes to the brain are analogous (i.e. similar) to “data cables”, bringing visual (video) information from two color video cameras (the eyes) in a three-dimensional (3D) stereoscopic ? array able to sense depth, just like the three- dimensional video processing areas in today’s computers.

Currently, the design and construction of most electronic imaging devices that handle visual color are built with consideration to these primary colors sensed by the eyes (Red-Green-Blue, or RGB). A “subtractive” equivalent (Cyan-Yellow-Magenta, or CYM) is used for devices that mix ink to absorb, rather than produce selected color light. Further description of the RGB primary colors and mixing, as well as CYM coloring for printers is available through the "Encoding color in digital images" links included in Figure 1.7 ahead.

Fig. 1.2 The visual sense in humans – Eyes to brain

The auditory (hearing) system (Figure 1.3)feels thesounds from the environment receivedas physical vibrations of molecules in the air, processing them through the outer and inner ear, drum, anvil, hammer, cochlea, etc., to create electrical signals that are transmitted to the brain through auditory nerves. Here again, in the second image, there are dual auditory paths to bring auditory information from two “microphones” (the ears) in a stereoscopic array (to sense depth), to the "stereo" audio processing areas (auditory cortex) in the brain.

Fig. 1.3 The auditory sense in humans

Similarly to the visual and auditory systems, the olfactory/smell and taste/flavor senses (Figure 1.4) also rely on various kinds of nerve cells and tissue to communicate smell and flavor sensation information to the brain. There seems to be limited spatial separation of information for olfactory information (two nostrils), and none (one palate) for taste/flavor information.

Fig. 1.4 The olfactory and taste sense in humans

Finally, the perception of the environment through physical feel and touch contact involves a diversity of organs and complex processes that extend through different parts of the body, notably the skin and muscles. The feel and touch systems actually consist of two different but related structures, one for input of information, feeling and exploring physical objects, and the other for output, touch and movement reactions exerting pressure and modifying the environment, with the assistance of muscles and bones. Figures 1.5.a and 1.5.b show images of feel and touch (through skeletal muscle activation) as parts of the body . These include nerve routes to and from the medulla (dorsal horn), and the brain, related to involuntary, fast-response reflective(reflex)reaction ? functions, as well as slower, more rational, intentionalreactions involving the brain.

Fig. 1.5.a The sense of feel and touch: a complex 2-way system

Fig. 1.5.b The neural paths for feel (sensing)-in and touch action (moving)-out

For educational purposes, the senses of feel and touch are powerful and important because they support both physical exploration of the material world, as well as active participation in the modification of the environment using muscles, hands, fingers, body movements, and vibration of the vocal cords that can produce sounds and speech.

Making sense: The brain at work, learning and symbolizing
Information collected by the vision, auditory, smell, taste, and touch senses is brought to the brain, where highly complex, almost magical processes begin. Somehow, the brain will identify and activate its structure and chemistry to identify, classify, analyze, synthesize, connect, reconnect, organize and reorganize incoming and previously-stored information in highly complex schemas ?. The individuals use these schemas to eventually generate conclusions, predictions ?, possibly defining meaningful reactions to deal with a situation or opportunity in the environment, unconsciously and immediately (reflex ?) or through a mediated, rational assistance analysis (intelligent ?) process.

Although much research has been dedicated to the understanding of brain structure and functions (brain research ?), much more still needs to be discovered, as it seems to be an extremely complex assemblage of organs and processes with systems dedicated to collecting, organizing, storing, reorganizing,retrieving andcommunicatingof information,which constantly function and evolvethroughout our lifetimes.

One important concept involved in brain functioning and learning is the use of representations ? . Representations are alternative expressions of knowledge (or awareness), normally involving the use of more effective or efficient surrogate ? objects and actions, which can include realistic or imagined objects (e.g. toys) images, sounds and suggestive motions, semi-realistic objects such as recreations, figurines, cartoons, stick-figures or icons ? and all the way to abstract and/or encrypted ? symbols ?, whose meanings are basically disconnected visually and understood only throurhcorresponding mental translation protocols ?,developed specifically for their unique purposes. Examples of these protocols are the meanings, rules of construction and translation of common conversational human languages, mathematical systems and security protocols, such as those used in currenttechnologies (encryption) to safeguard data for securecommunications.

The images included in Figure 1.5 are those of ancient representations found in archaeological sites around the world. These images show counting dots and scratches, realistic images of animals, icons and symbolic narrative text. The images in Figure 1.6 are of symbols introduced for early electronic communications (wireless Morse code), tactile symbols for blind persons, (Braille), and hand-finger gestures for deaf or mute persons (Hand signs in Sign Language).

Fig. 1.5 Ancient representations with symbols, images, icons and narratives

Fig. 1.6 Encoding text for early electric communications, the blind and the deaf-mute persons

More recent development in electronic computing, communications, presentation, and "robotics" (automated physical action machines) technologies have resulted in the current widespread utilization of binary (two-symbol) representation or "coding" of information. Binary coding is the simplest form of representation of information. Binary coding uses two different, distinct conditions represented by “zeros” and “ones” that in electronic devices or media are represented by two alternating electrical or magnetic states, typically referred to as "ON" or "OFF". The states of the binary media are therefore represented by "strings of these devices, objects or symbols in one of two (0, 1) states, each one called binary digits or bits. Strings of binary symbols are then defined and interpreted in series or sequences though corresponding protocols. Eventually, and due to the great ability and flexibility of present day electronic devices, binary coding, commonly called digital coding has been relied on to efficiently encode and manipulate text, sound, images, motion, and full virtual-physical interactive environments. Digital coding is used today in all kinds of "digital" devices, including“digital computers” and robots. The links in Figure 1.7 below provide access to related interactive web activities for exploration of digital encoding of numbers, sound, images, and through special processing and devices, motion and physical activity simulation.

The first image in Figure 1.7 shows how a number (13) can be encoded in different grouping sizes: 10 for the standard decimal system, 5 for base-5, and 2 for the base-2 binary system. Notice that each digit in the numeric system can count up and create bundles to the number of different symbols in the base. Counting numbers in different number bases can be explored through the links under the "Encoding numbers" image in Figure 1.7.

The second image of Figure 1.7 (Encoding digital text) presents how standard text characters are coded using digital binary representations in what is called the ASCII code (American Standard Code for Information Interchange). Notice that an extended binary numeric system called "hexadecimal", meaning using 16 symbols, is used to encode groups of 4 bits of the 8 required to encode each of the 28 letters of letter of the alphabet, as well as several common basic alphabetic symbols/keys. The result is a system with 16 symbols per digit: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, or F. Notice then that the last six of the 16 base numbers (10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15) are expressed with the single letter characters A to F (or lower case, a to f). The use of hexadecimal representations can be explored through the fourth link under the "Encoding numbers - bases 10, 5 and 2 " image in Figure 1.7.

The first of the two activities under the "Encoding digital text" group animates the generation of binary characters to represent each of the letters, characters and symbols of the standard English alphabet. Extended characters and other symbols sets can be represented through the use of specially designated and jointly activated keys, such as the "SHIFT" and the "ALTERNATE" keys. The second link displays the contents of a simple text file typed and saved in a standard laptop computer with the basic Windows "Notepad" text editor in the year 2003.

The third (Encoding digital sound) and fourth (Encoding color) images of Figure 1.7 display and animate the creation of codes in computer memories producing files containing sound (popular 1960's ABBA song in Spanish), and an image (color rectangle) composed by multiple color-mixed dots coded in binary symbols commonly presented also in hexadecimal form, for brevity. The activity called by the first link in the Encoding color image allows for an exploration of computer generated color images by mixing primary colors in dots (pixels) integrating full images. The second link offers a description of the data in the computer memory for a red square, where all red dots are declared of color "ff0000", meaning: full RED ("ff" or 255 value), no GREEN ("00" or zero), and no BLUE color in them. The 3 RGB pixel cells of each dot could be seen physically with an appropriate magnifier glass on any currently common computer of cell phone screen.

Fig. 1.7 Encoding numbers, text, sound, and images in binary digital code

Explicit and realistic, versus implicit, abstract, symbolic representations
Generally speaking, representations have become the means for the brain to help itself deal with information from the environment more effectively, and the process is a dynamic and mostly complex one. Starting from the more explicit ? , real and realistic representations (Figure 1.8), perceived directly by the senses through either crude or highly detailed and realistic imitations, graphics or video, representations and then evolving into more implicit ? , abstract ? or symbolic ? representations. In education, this evolution can go from toys, meaningfully figurative cartoons and simple charts and into highly abstract symbols and combinations of them, such as in standard language text, and mathematical expressions. Explicit and Abstract objects are created in the brain or the environment, but interpreted in the brain (or accessory computing devices) to help us deal with real objects and situations in safer, faster, cheaper, and/or more enjoyable ways.

Recently, the success of electronic technology in sensing, generating, communicating, processing, storing and presenting information effectively in electronic devices has made binary representations the ultimate form and layer of encoding for most types of information managed outside the brain. This layer is shown at the bottom of Figure 1.9. Electronics technologies are proving highly effective in providing powerful, flexible, effective (focused) and efficient (cost effective) information support systems, including useful stimulation to our senses and brain for the purposes of education. Realistic looking, acting and interacting objects and scenarios created by computer technologies today are known as virtual ? environments.

Virtual representations and virtual environments (“virtual reality” ? ) are increasingly finding applications that make our exploration and control of the environment more effective, efficient, safer, cheaper, faster.The potential uses of virtual reality tools for education also seem to be rapidly growing.

Fig. 1.8 Explicit and implicit representations of reality

http://www.animath.net/virtualphysical.html

Fig. 1.9 Binary digital computer encoding and decoding of all kinds of representations

Implicit versus explicit representations for learning
An important implication of choosing explicit (i.e. raw, realistic, concrete) versus implicit (i.e. processed, symbolic, abstract) representations for learning and education would be the degree to which meaningful information from and to the environment can be acquired through direct perception by the student's senses, or alternatively, which will require more processing in their brain, possibly encoding and/or connecting to visual, auditory, tactile (taste, olfactory) symbols to become useful. As we know, the more implicit the representations, the more brain processing and support is to be required for decoding and interpretation. This distinction would be important when we consider the supports that would be needed to teach the different concepts and skills through the grade levels in school. There will also be importance to consider the different stages of cognitive development of each and all the students, with different learning styles, and possibly special learning and/or physical disabilities.

By their nature, explicit representations should require less involvement of the brain for encoding ?. decoding ?and interpretation. Implicit representations, on the other hand would demand more awareness, knowledge and energies from the brain to identify/interpret and deal with implied symbols and meanings. Implicit representations will therefore require access to necessary translation protocols ? for the information to become useful in real terms, by encoding or decoding, as needed, the associated symbols and constructs. Commonly used communications protocols in K-12 schools are those used for standard written, spoken and hand-sign languages ? , and for Algebra in mathematics.

Naturally, the degree of implicit or explicit stimulation required for concepts or skills at different steps of natural mental development, or learning processes, could be expected to be different. This is in fact the underlying concept proposed by Jean Piaget in his theories of cognitive development. How much of explicit (raw) and how much implicit (coded) content would be more helpful for teaching and learning through each step of cognitive development and/or specific concept or skill?

In the following chapters, the important role of perception through our senses, and the role of the brain in the creation of patterns, schemas, and analysis and synthesis will be central to the design and implementation of effective educational materials and strategies. In the context of education, the question would repeatedly be: which and how much stimulation would be helpful for the senses and the brain to best support effective and efficient learning of concepts and skills ?

The answer to this question will become a useful, necessary part of the design and application of all possible technological options for teaching. The following section focuses on these key issues of the design and use of instructional materials using multimedia technologies.

Meaningful Multiple Representations, MultipleSenses & Repetition (MMR-MSR) a systems approach to learning (F Razo).

Following below is a summary (MMR-MSR-SSE, FRazo) of considerations suggested by widely accepted educational research and practices, to support the design and implementation of effective instructional materials and activities. The concepts, framed within a general systems model of functioning, describes areas of cognitive ability which are similar to the main functional blocks of Luria’s Neurophysicological Theory (A. R, Luria, 1966) including physical as well as virtual, computer-based materials and activities:

Fig. 1.10 An Input-Processing/Storage-Output model (MMR-MSR) of learning using our senses and brain

1.- MMR - (M) Meaningfully focused context: The purpose and expectations of the learning exercise should be clear, meaningful, and unambiguously focused (minimal distractions) within the environments, materials, objects, activities and individual actions and opportunities presented to the learner. These purpose and expectations should be distinctively strong, understood and affectively embraced in the context of the learner's realities (Situated learning, J. Lave, M.J. Wenger, J. Greeno), while offering opportunities for action (Affordance Theory, J.J. Gibson, J, Greeno)), for most effective, unencumbered (minimalist) learning (J.J. Rousseau, J. Dewey, J. Bruner, M. Montessori, J.J. Gibson).

(MR) Multiple Representations: Provide proper conceptual support from different surrogate, equivalent, or comparable, reinforcing representations, starting from those that use explicit, realistic, concrete, clear and safe replicas and toys of reality for understanding, to those that use abstract, symbolic, implicit, descriptive objects and analogic processes. Each and all these representations are intended to support the more efficient mental-internal and physical-external processes of identification, storage and retrieval of information, and powerful development and mastery of knowledge, representing the benefits of a better understanding and control of real environments.

Using properly selected, similar functional models, or examples of related concepts, if existent, would normally facilitate illustrating what the meaning and nature of the concepts being taught. This can also help the "analysis before synthesis", and "scaffolded" (sheltered) approaches to teaching.

The identification and selection of diverse representations can be supported by the experience and competencies of experienced instructional designers and providers ("Knowing and Teaching Elementary Mathematics" - Liping Ma,) in the multiple-disciplines involved (TPACK Technology, Pedagogy, Area Content Knowledge- tpack.org), as well as the necessary Administrative Political and Operational skills.

2.- MSR -- (MS) Multiple Senses involved in simultaneous interactive and Repeated stimulation of the body and the mind: The more senses involved in coordinated strong, simultaneous, stimulation of the mind, the better. This helps students receiving and processing patterning information within their complex body-brain structures (Perception and cognition - JJ Gibson, R.E. Mayer, J.Piaget.) Allowing the learners to participate actively and interactively in the process of engagement and reinforcement , supporting ownership and commitment (affective domain), as well as understanding the knowledge (cognitive domain) targeted for learning (J. Dewey, J.Piaget, J.Bruner) , (R) Repeated: Appropriate and effective repetition of the experiences is helpful in supporting the complex electrochemical processes in the brain and body involved in the acquisition-generation and long-term retention of patterns of knowledge in the body and the brain (Behaviorism – J.B. Watson, B.F. Skinner and Cognitive Science – H.A. Simon). Mixing is OK. The identification and selection of effective, stimulating physical and virtual multi-media representations and repetition sequences are also facilitated by the competencies of the instructional designers and providers ("Knowing and Teaching Elementary Mathematics" - Liping Ma and TPACK – tpack.org).

3.- SSE -- Learning environments are better when they observe the proper balance of (S) Safe environments, (S) Speedier, (E) Effective, Efficient/Economic learning environments as as possible. This balance is to be helped by the use of proper learning tools, real-life meaningful symbols (abstraction), scaffolding (supported gradual building) taking advantage of existing, examples in real-life items and processes, introducing new ideas from-simple-to-complex, as possible in "Zones of Proximal Development" (L. Vygotski, 1978), and assisting learning with reasonable realistic virtualization and multimedia, in support of safe, speedy, effective and effcient learning.

CHAPTER EXPANSION ACTIVITIES
HOW CAN CURRENT TECHNOLOGIES BEST SUPPORT THESE MMR-MSR-SSE NEEDS OF LEARNERS?
Basic definitions related to education, and educational technologies
For the purpose of establishing a solid base for the analysis and discussions of the nature and application of educational technologies, it is necessary to begin with reliable definitions of important terms. These are listed below. Reasonably reliable definitions can be found in most available dictionaries or encyclopedias, either printed or accessible on-line.

ACTIVITY : Use of off and on-line sources to find and write out brief, concise and reliable definitions for the following terms, and then briefly answer the last two questions.

• What is education? ?

• What is teaching? ?

• What is technology? ?

• What is education technology? ?

• Question: What is the advantage of having teachers, classrooms and schools?

• Question: Why would be expected advantages from technologies assisting teachers, classrooms and schools?

• Question: Why do we need district, county, state, and federal education guidance and administration?

• According to the definition of learning, who else, besides humans can learn? Can rocks in a riverbed “learn” something?

• What are, how are they different, and who can benefit most from explicit ("concrete") teaching materials and strategies and who can benefit best from implicit ("abstract") teaching materials and strategies?

• What are the functions of teachers? Can people learn without teachers? How do teachers make a difference?

• Give a clear example where new technologies can make teaching and learning better, faster, cheaper, and/or safer?

• What kind of institutional administration is needed for effective and efficient education that includes new technologies?

Theories of learning and technologies to support learning
The process of learning and teaching has been the focus of much research and analysis in the past, and various theories of learning have guided much of the related discourse. Some of the most influential theories of learning will be explored in the next chapter, for the purpose of clarifying the specific roles of old and new technologies in learning and in classrooms.

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Chapter 2 Traditional theories of learning and technology

Objective: This chapter contains a brief summary of some of theories of learning that are most important to the application of old and new technologies in education.

Theories of learning
The process of learning has been previously described as a complex one involving our senses and our brain, and it is one that begins even before we are born, and evolves throughout our lifetimes. In this chapter, we will explore some of the most important theories that describe the process of learning, and how understanding them could help use technologies best to teach children in and out of the classroom.

CHAPTER EXPANSION ACTIVITIES
Basic description of some of the most influential theories of learning and institutional education
The current format of our "formal" education, in which children are grouped in progressive-age period classrooms is the result of a long history of social experiences and evolution. Through time, there have been many notable contributions to the philosophical discourse and practices of education. The following are names of influential contributors in the field of education shaping much of the way our schools operate today. Copy the table below on a clean sheet of paper and briefly describe the most important contribution from each:

ACTIVITY : Use available off and on-line sources to find reliable descriptions of the following:

Theories of learning - Use the information from the previous research exercises to create your own concise definitions (no more than 50 words) for each of the following theories of learning:.

• Behaviorism (?) - Focuses on the specific, measurable behavior responses of individuals when subjected to specific, measurable stimulation.(Skinner)

• Constructivism (?) - Focuses on the ability of individuals to construct their own knowledge from personal experiences (Piaget)

• Situated cognition (?) - Emphasizes the effect of the meaningful environment around individuals to induce learning (Lave, Wenger, Greeno, Gibson)

• Cognitivism (?) - Emphasizes the role of internal anatomical nerve and brain structures of individuals to generate, retain, and access information (Reitman, Simon)

Teaching approaches

• “Student centered” learning (?) - When learning processes are regulated mainly by student motivation and participation

• “Teacher centered” learning (?) - When learning processes are regulated mainly by teacher motivation and participation

• Inquiry (or "Problem") based learning (?) - When learning processes are driven by issues or questions in need of investigation. The target issues, questions or problems could be generated by either or both students and/or teachers.

• "Drilling" for learning (?) - When learning processes are driven by students internalizing and mastering skills through repetition of activities. These processes seems to promote and facilitate the brain's internalization (retaining) of knowledge and skills.

QUESTION 1: Which of them all could be the best theory and best approach for classroom learning? Why? When?

QUESTION 2: What could be the best mix of teaching approaches in a balanced classroom?

Would a series of sequential, combined cycles (zig-zag, or spiral) of development of knowledge and skills steps be reasonable? (see illustration in image for mathematics)

QUESTION 3: Use the definitions of education and technology to write a concise definition of educational technology?

QUESTION 4: Describe one common old technology and method and one contemporary new technology and method used for teaching the following concepts in a classroom:

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Chapter 3 Today's classrooms and students

Objective: This chapter will feature a review of the typical features of today's PreK-12 learning and classrooms. This knowledge is important because it should introduce a general sense of what to expect when considering new technologies and methods to support learning in these environments.

In the United states, institutions generally divide basic education in the following age-progressive related periods: 1) Early education, 2) Kindergarten, 3) Primary / Elementary, 4) Middle / Junior High, and 5) Secondary / High.

Foundations of Education - The Challenge of Professional Practice, McNergney, R & McGNergney, J., Allyn and Bacon, 2004.

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Chapter 4 The practicalities of establishing and operating educational institutions.

Objective: In this chapter, a wide range of questions and potential solutions that might have been tried or being considered to try through time, in attempts to figure out best ways to educate children, in the United States and around the world.

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Chapter 5 How new and old technologies can help in today's classrooms

Objective: In this chapter, we will focus on identifying past and present classroom materials and technologies that can help students learn most effectively, faster, cheaper, and safer. For this purpose, we will refer to what we have learned through the previous chapters, regarding the objectives of teaching and classrooms, the best application of learning theories, and a recognition of the materials, technologies, and control over their environmental students and teachers can have today in typical and "technology enhanced" classrooms.

That is: identifying wise use of resources for the various cognitive and functional needs and opportunities to assist students collectively and individually at the different grade levels and for different subject matter topics, at home and in classrooms.

Examples:

Traditional models and safe replicas of real objects and situations.

Television monitors

Sound/audio management and amplification systems

Internet-connected classroom computer - Basic

Document and object image capture and projection systems (DOCUCAM, ELMO)

Electronic student-response-detection-systems i.e. "clickers" and "polling buttons"

GPS (Geographic Positioning Systems)

Digital projection microscopes, stereoscopes

Touch screens, touch panels, electronic pads (cell-phones, electronic tablets, "smart boards")

Electronic readers (Kindle, Nook, eReaders, etc.)

Automated-remote/wirelessdata-collection systems (e.g. PASCO, SCADA, etc.)

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